Image 1. Codex Yuta Tnoho or Codex Vindobonensis mexicanus 1, Plate 24

On right side center, Coo Dzavui, which calendric name is Nine Wind, carries on his back a sacred entity named Lady Eleven Lizard, who holds four mushrooms on her headdress. Behind the two is Lady Four Lizard, who also has four mushrooms on her headdress. Both characters symbolize the female spirit of the sacred mushrooms, and both display their totemic animal or nagual, the Lizard, who is closely associated with fertility. Coo Dzavui, Lady Eleven Lizard, and Lady Four Lizard are moving to the left, towards the God of Rain and Thunderbolts, who wears a turquoise mask with snake fangs and is depicted in front of a corn plant. he Snake, whose shape and movements resemble a lightning bolt, is his totemic animal. In Mesoamerican cultures this deity is closely associated with sacred mushrooms, because the most powerful grows where a lightning has struck.

Regarding the symbolism the Ñuu savi (Mixtec) scholar Faustino Hernandez Santiago pointed out: “The story begins on the banks of the Apoala River or Yuta Tnoho, with the meeting of two ñuhu (name the Mixtecs use for sacred beings even today), one red and the other golden. Then, there is a dialogue between two deities, a venerable old man and the hero of the Mixtecs people, 9-Wind or Coo Dzavui” (Hernández Santiago et al 2018, 26). Coo Dzavui could be translated as “Serpent of the Rain” and have been compared with Quetzalcoatl the feathered serpent of the Aztecs.

Rain, water, maize and mushrooms are linked with fertility. Above them, the god Coo Dzavui or Nine-Wind sings while making music using an instrument that scrapes a bone against a skull. Nine Wind sang hymns, “scraping bones on a skull, while eight of the First Lords ate the mushrooms. Lord 7 Flower, seated on a jaguar skin cushion, was the leader of the group: he was crying in a trance. (Anders, Jansen and Perez Jimenez 1992, 148-148). Lord Seven Flower, which has been compared with Piltzintecuhtli from the Nahua culture, is in front of Nine-Wind; tears in his eyes, Seven Flower holds two mushrooms. To their left, deities participating in the ritual each carry two mushrooms in their hands, reflecting Mesoamericans’ sacred view about duality. “[…] in front of him participated Lord 2 Dog, the Elder Priest, Lord 1 Death, Sun [Macuilxóchitl], Lord 4 Movement, Nuhu with Jaguar Mouth, Long Curls and Crown of Knotted Paper, Lady 9 Reed,Quechquemitl of Jade, Lady 1 Eagle, the Grandmother, Lady 9 Grass, Lady of Death [Ciuacoati], Lady 5 Flint, Flower of Corn. They had a great vision. (Anders, Jansen and Perez Jimenez 1992, 148-148). As is ´possible to see the Codex Yuta tnoho address several topics from sacred cosmogony, rituals, but also historical genealogies of Ñuu savi (Mixtec) rulers.

3. Geography and Context

Psilocybe mexicana grows mainly but not exclusively in subtropical regions below 2800 m. Psilocybe mexicana […] seems to have had its origin from tropical terricolous species such as from the evergreen tropical forests, which have small spores and brown cystidia” (Guzman 1975, 395). According to Gaston Guzman it is possible to classify Psilocybe mushrooms in Mexico in three groups corresponding to different geographical ecological zones. Psilocybe mexicana belongs to the third group. “The third group, encompassing the great majority of hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is found in the intermediate zones where a moist, subtropical climate and hilly terrain give rise to mesophytic cloud forest at elevations of 1,000-1,600 m”. (Guzmán 2008, 407-408). There are several regions in the State of Oaxaca in which Psilocybe mexicana grows.

4. Primary Sources

As mentioned in other entry Psilocybe mushrooms are 80% water, due to this archeological evidence from material remains is almost impossible. However an abundant corpus of sculptures, codices and ritual paraphernalia suggested a millenary use. The Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus 1 or Codex Yuta Tnoho studied here come from pre-Hispanic times, probably early 16th century and perhaps is the ancient depiction of a ritual with sacred visionary mushrooms. The whole codex refers to the cosmogony of Ñuu savi (Mixtec) people because refers the place of origin, the sacred three of Apoala and the ritual took place before the first dawn (Caso 1963). The entire Codex refers to sacred narratives and symbols, but also to places (toponyms), which are still inhabited nowadays

Colonial sources as the Yanhuitlan Codex (1554) and Inquisitorial archives related with provides some information regarding the sacramental uses of sacred mushrooms: “[…] in proceedings before a Spanish scribe and notary, three Indians notables gave testimony concerning their ostentatious worship of the gods of the old religion. As they have been baptised, they were of course apostates. The principal Indian gave his testimony in Mixtec. It seems that he had taken inebriating mushrooms to invoke divine help in various circumstances” (Wasson 1980, 218).

Ethnographic research during 20th century and the analysis and interpretation of Ñuu savi (Mixtec) scholars are very valuable to achieve a better understanding. Ethnographic research provides valuable information regarding several cultural uses (sacramental, therapeutic, and divinatory), also allows to grasp the symbolism of the several rituals linked with the sacred mushrooms, but above all, allows to understand some cultural features which relates the entheogenic experience with wisdom: “The mushroom has the quality of being animate. There is a conversation between the mushroom and the one who takes it. The fungus knows much, and thus is able to foretell. As the mushroom itself foretells, the proposition of ingesting it as an intention into contact with the spirit of the mushroom. Insofar as the mushroom knows of deeds and activities that man cannot know without its aid, the fungus represents the extra-human world. In itself it contains a supernatural or sacred force related to wisdom” (Ravicz 2007 [1961], 45).

Another notable cultural trait within the Mixtec culture is that the spirit of the mushrooms has a feminine character, as seen in the iconography of Yuta Tnoho Codex (Codex Vindobonensis) but also in the ethnography of the twentieth century. Especially, in the preparations for the ritual in which a girl is in charge of collecting and preparing the mushrooms. Concerning the latter aspect, it is worth noting the following: "The meaning of the mode of preparation increases its importance taking into account the kind of person who grinds it, for it must necessarily be a girl, which is also a necessary and unique element in the Mixtec pattern. Undoubtedly, we are in the presence of a belief about the essential quality of the mushroom expressed socially through the kind of person representing complete purity: the girl. The reverent attitude shown toward the mushroom has only paralleled at the other end of the social scale in respect for the elders." (Ravicz 2007 [1961], 45).

Research carried out by Ñuu savi (Mixtec) scholars provides insightful information which allows to better understand the cultural significance of the sacramental uses, in spite the fact that nowadays sacramental, therapeutic and divinatory uses could be considered under threat due to colonization, but also due to the criminalization and stigmatization which prevails. There is an exception in Mexican Law, which allows the sacramental use of Psilocybe mushrooms for Indigenous peoples. However, a wide array of communities unfortunately are not aware of it, due to the lack of information and because general audiences and authorities still consider Psilocybe mushrooms as a drug. “The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the communities under study was not reported. However, the informants mentioned that in the san Antonio Huitepec municipality south of the Santa Catarina Estetla and San Juan Yuta Communities healers and shamans use mushrooms for divination or healing purposes” (Hernández- Santiago, et al 2016, 12). This is an example of how criminalization and lack of recognition tends to erase this cultural heritage, because the mushrooms are still growing in the territory, but the knowledge is disappearing.

5. Interpretation

It is necessary to address Ñuu savi (Mixtec) worldview to understand a cultural uses associated with psilocybin mushrooms: sacred, ritual, therapeutic, and divinatory . Ñuu savi culture do not consider the mushrooms to be a drug or psychoactive substance; rather, the fungi are sacred beings, entities with whom reciprocal relationships are established. Fungus are not detached from the territory. As previously mentioned the fungus has the quality of being animated. This personhood is very important feature because allow to understand the mushrooms as a person, with with whom reciprocal and respectful relationships are established. Sacred mushrooms are not a drug, and object or a resource, this cultural feature allows a better interpretation of their role in society and culture. They are an integral part of the sacred landscape.

To move froward is significant to highlight the hypothesis that Psilocybe mushrooms probably have been used for painting some Codices. Mycologist Gaston Guzmán registered during fieldwork in Necaxa, Puebla in a Nahua region the name teotlaquilnanacatl or with a correct spelling teotlacuilnanacatl, which could be translated as, “an Aztec word that probably means “mushrooms of the gods” or “divine one who paints or writes,” from teo = god, tlaquilo or tlacuilo (= painter or writer) and nanacatl = mushroom” (Guzmán 1960, 87). Another possible translation could be the “mushroom of the sacred writing”, which links the use of mushrooms with the creative process of painting and writing the codices, such as the Codex Yuta Tnoho studied above and many others. However this is only a hypothesis of probable creative uses for painting some of the Codices, for sure not all of them, but is not superfluous to remind that visionary mushrooms have been use to communicate with sacred entities and supernatural beings. Moreover due to their visionary properties is probably that some of the images come from the visions or dreams acquired during the entheogenic experience.

Finally is very important to highlight that usually writing it is related to wisdom, due to this is possible to argue that for Indigenous peoples the experience with Psilocybe mushrooms is a source of wisdom and not only a series of hallucinations, which is the way to consider it within Western prohibitionist policies. The term xi´i ndoto, which could be translated as “fungus that awakens” is a clear example, that the aim of the experience is not to escape from reality, instead the goal is to awake or in other words to extend consciousness and look for wisdom and advice to solve an issue, usually a sickness, but not exclusively.

6. Implications

Psilocybin mushrooms allow communication with ancestors and other sacred and more-than-human beings, including rain deities and guardians of hills, caves, springs, rivers, lagoons, or forests. The process of personhood has ethical consequences , sacred entities are identified as natural forces and are recognized and respected as persons. In synthesis, some of the cultural uses among Ñuu savi (Mixtec) people are: 1) concerning therapeutic uses, it is stated that the mushroom has healing power; that is, it discovers the causes of the disease and prescribes the appropriate cure. 2) regarding divinatory uses, it is an agent to forecast the future and talk about the past. 3) In relation to ritual uses, the way of preparing it stands out; the Mixtec pattern consists of grinding it with water in the metate before taking it, while in other cultures, such as the Mazatec, it is customary to eat the mushroom whole or shredded, but not ground. The hypothesis that some mushrooms were used for creative purposes to paint or write the Codices sheds light on a vein or research, which is frequently overlooked, i.e., the creative and aesthetic uses of sacred plants and fungi by Indigenous peoples.

References:

Anders, F., Jansen,M.E.R.G.N, and G.A Pérez Jiménez, Gabina Aurora. Origen E Historia De Los Reyes Mixtecos. Libro Explicativo Del Llamado Códice Vindobonensis. (México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1992), pp 146-148.

Caso, Alfonso. “Representaciones De Hongos En Los códices”. Estudios De Cultura Náhuatl 4 (1963):27-36. https://nahuatl.historicas.unam.mx/index.php/ecn/article/view/78599.

Guzmán, Gastón. “Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An overview”. Economic Botany 62 (3), 2008:404-412.

Guzmán Gastón. “Variation, distribution, ethnomycological data and relationships of Psilocybe aztecorum, a Mexican hallucinogenic mushroom”. Mycologia.70 (2), 1978 Mar.Apr:385-96. PMID: 566852.

Guzmán, Gastón. “Nueva Localidad de Importancia Etnomicológica de los Hongos Neurotrópicos Mexicanos”. Ciencia, México, 20 (1960):85-88.

Hernandez Santiago, Faustino, Magdalena Martínez Reyes, Jesús Pérez Moreno, and Gerardo Mata.. “Pictographic Representation of the First Dawn and Its Association with Entheogenic Mushrooms in a 16th Century Mixtec Mesoamerican Codex.” Scientia Fungorum 46. (2018) https://doi.org/10.33885/sf.2017.46.1173

Hernández Santiago, Faustino, Pérez Moreno, Jesus, Xoconostle Cázares, Beatriz, Juan José Almaraz Suárez, Juan José, Ojeda Trejo, Enrique, Mata Montes de Oca, Gerardo and Díaz Aguilar, Irma. “Traditional Knowledge and Use of Wild Mushrooms by Mixtecs or Ñuu Savi, the People of the Rain, from Southeastern Mexico.” Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 12 (1), (2016): 35–35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0108-9.

Hoogshagen, S.”Notes on the sacred (narcotic) mushrooms from Coatlan Oaxaca, Mexico”. Oklahoma Anthrpological Society. Bull., 7 (Norman, 1959), pp 71-74.

Ravicz, Robert. “The Mixtec in a Comparative Study of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms”. In Brian P. Akers (ed). The Sacred Mushrooms of Mexico.(University press of America, 2007):39-60.

Wasson, Robert.Gordon. The Wondrous Mushroom. Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. New York. McGraw-Hill Books, 1980).

Image 2, Map of the Ñuu savi (Mixtec) region. (Hernández-Santiago et al 2018, 21)

Image 3-4. iNaturalist. Psilocybe mexicana R.Heim by biol_jhasua (licensed under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)